Fundamentals 3 Teaching approach

Fundamentals module 3 of 3 . Teaching approach

Slide 2

Summary and outline

1. This module is the third and final Fundamentals module. It presents the general teaching approach, which comprises four key steps.

These steps form a common thread that runs through all teaching activities.

Step by step and in a structured manner, these four steps combine the three registers of teaching: didactic, relational, organizational.

2. The outline, detailed on the slide, runs from slide 3 to slide 15. The numbers in brackets correspond to the slide numbers.

3. Tip

To get the most out of the module, you can watch the slide, listen to the audio commentary and read the written commentary. To read the commentary associated with the slide, click on the icon as indicated in the “text” section on the right-hand side of the slide.

Slide 3

Introduction

1.    The foundation of teaching consists of three distinct and complementary areas of mediation: didactic, relational and organisational.

Teaching has two complementary aspects: one is more structural, as presented in Fundamentals module 2, “The teaching situation,” and the other is more dynamic, and is presented in this Fundamentals module 3, entitled “Teaching approach.”

2.    Ideally, this module should be taken after Fundamentals module 1 “At the heart of pedagogy: three registers of mediation” and fundamentals module 2, “The teaching situation.” In this way it completes a trilogy that forms the foundation of a humanistic and pragmatic approach to teaching.

Slide 4

Teaching approach: overview

1.    The teaching approach presents the pedagogical process in four stages.

Logically speaking the approach would be linear, but in reality, the problems that occur in teaching are open-ended and cannot be solved by simply applying a procedure: there is a degree of uncertainty (particularly on the part of the learner), and other events occur, some more predictable than others.

In this approach, the teacher may need to return to a previous stage that needs to be improved, or there can be two stages presented as separate that may overlap. As we all know, reality is often more complex than a model or diagram, but the latter help us understand by distinguishing between different things. That is the approach we are taking here.

First, let us clarify that the general four-step approach is inspired by a traditional project approach involving the implementation of rational action with a view to solving a problem.

2.  Step 1: Diagnosis.  We take stock of the initial situation in its context and measure the gap between it and the desired outcome. This is an investigation that ends once the problem to be solved is outlined.

3. Step 2. Once the problem to be solved has been identified, a solution is developed that appears relevant and appropriate to the context, based on resources and constraints, and with a dose of common sense.

4.  Step 3.  The chosen solution is implemented. Progress is assessed as it happens and adjustments can be made, while staying on the course set out at the start.

5. Step 4. The final evaluation allows us to verify whether the results have been achieved and, if so, to validate the approach as a possible solution to be used in the future. The teacher gains from this experience through critical feedback on their actions and their effects.

6. The teacher is therefore like an engineer who, in the sense of J. Dewey, conducts an investigation. This investigation leads them to analyse the educational situation, identify the problem to be solved and propose an acceptable solution. They then implement this solution and evaluate the results obtained.

We can also compare this to the clinical investigation carried out by a doctor on their patient. The doctor makes a diagnosis (examines the patient, discusses the problem) and identifies the health issue. They then write a prescription (the solution), followed by treatment (which can be modified if necessary) and finally, the patient’s recovery is monitored. However, just because two things are similar doesn’t mean they are the same, and while these approaches have similarities in their sequencing, learners who need to develop skills or knowledge are not patients.

Slide 5

Analysing the context

1.    This large blue rectangle may seem enigmatic. It serves as a backdrop for the teaching approach. To deepen and broaden your analysis of the context, we strongly recommend that you read the Fundamentals module 2 entitled “The teaching situation.”

The context brings together various elements from the general environment. It is within this context that the learner and the teacher will have to work to build learning. At first glance, the elements of the context may seem obvious, but the reality is sometimes ambiguous or not very visible, and some elements are not immediately apparent. It is therefore useful to take the time to identify and analyse the context, as it offers opportunities or points of reference that may be useful, or may contain particularly restrictive aspects that could cause difficulties. It is up to the teacher to take all elements of the context into account before beginning their actual activity.

It should be noted from the outset that the teaching approach we are interested in here is not a rigid framework: we will propose points of reference, as useful guidelines of sorts, but these guidelines do not exclude intuition, creativity, spontaneity and a dose of common sense.

Although our list is not exhaustive, let us quickly review some of the elements of the teaching context. The more the teacher is aware of these elements, the more they will be able to act pragmatically and effectively to support the learner’s learning. This applies to the three basic registers: didactic, relational and organisational.

2. Formal/informal: This is a strategic dimension. A formal educational context is the most common and refers to an institution, i.e. rules and a framework. School is a typical example of such an institution, with pupils organised into classes, specific curricula and timetables, exams and diplomas, rules and regulations, and professional teachers. However, we can also add the world of vocational training and even internship supervisors or apprenticeship mentors: they too have a framework of rules and contractual obligations. Informal situations where everyday skills are learned (learning to walk, learning to use a tool, etc.) are less structured and more “open.” We are all familiar with such situations, and understand that often, common sense, a little patience, organisation, clear explanations, demonstrations, practice, questions and advice are sufficient.

3.   Single learner/group of learners: another question that is an important factor for the teacher is whether they are in charge of a single learner (as in the case of a tutor, who can then focus their attention more easily on one person) or of a group of varying size: 4 to 5 learners, a class of 30 pupils, a lecture hall with 300 students? It is easy to understand that the more learners there are, the less time the teacher will have to devote to each one. This will have an impact on their strategy, organisation and monitoring of any learning difficulties. The larger and more diverse the group of learners, the more difficult it will be to help each one progress to the best of their ability, even if solutions exist.

4. Available resources: teachers need to know what resources they can draw on in different teaching situations, and the inventory can be very caried. You should bear in mind that resources will serve as a bridge between the teacher and the learner. It is important to have sufficient and appropriate resources, whether for preparing the teaching intervention, implementing it or even evaluating its effects. These resources may include websites, books, manuals, computers, exercise books, space and furniture, tools and equipment, but also available time. Teaching is not just words or discourse, even if these are important: engaging learners in an educational situation very often requires resources that must be mobilised and coordinated in a rational manner. For the teacher, knowing what resources they can rely on in concrete terms enables them to develop a relevant teaching response.

5. Room to manoeuvre: the context provides resources and constraints and, ultimately, the teacher finds themselves with freedom to change things and choices to make among the options available to them. Organisational constraints (in terms of time and resources) are an important potential hindrance. This is a fact that teachers must take into account, but it does not stop them from demonstrating creativity or initiative in the three registers of teaching.

Slide 6

Step 1. Diagnosis (1 of 2) 

1.    Following the analysis of the context, which provides general information, useful reference points and elements of the framework, comes step 1: diagnosis of the teaching situation. This step, often considered too obvious and optional, is based on an investigation that can be very thorough or more superficial, depending on the context and issues at stake, and on whether the teacher is working in a professional and institutional setting or a more flexible and informal setting. A good understanding of the elements of the teaching situation, understood as a configuration, i.e. a dynamic arrangement of individual elements, is therefore central to this survey. It is useful to bear in mind these elements, which are presented in Fundamentals module 2, “The teaching situation.”

This investigation comprises two different aspects (which overlap to some extent):

(1) Identifying and selecting information

(2) Defining the teaching problem (i.e. clearly describing the issue to be addressed from a teaching perspective).

This is common sense, but it requires a certain amount of attention on the part of the teacher. While experience is a useful resource at all stages of the process, we should question it so as not to become complacent and fall into comfortable routines or false assumptions.

2. (1) Identifying and selecting information. This information is the evidence gathered by the teacher during their investigation.

3.  The first step is to summarise the contextual elements that indicate which information to keep in mind to tie up the teaching activity with reality.

4. The next step is to clearly identify the learner’s initial skills and/or knowledge. Without this, there is a risk of setting up “baseless” progression expectations grounded in theory that is far removed from reality. To identify the learner’s actual skills at the outset, depending on the context, you can draw on the learner’s previous performances. You can also, particularly in schools or undergraduate education, find out about the previous year’s programmes (but this is only indicative information). In adult training, analysing the CV, and sometimes a portfolio, also provides useful information. To obtain more reliable information, you can give a test based on the basic level that is supposedly required (you can use an existing test or construct one yourself). In the same vein, you can put the learner in a real-life situation by asking them to do something they are supposed to know how to do. Where possible, it is also useful to talk to the learner about what they say they know or what they can do, and about their motivations for learning (personal choice or obligation, projects, and interest in learning).

What is important, therefore, is to have a documented view of the learner’s starting point.

5. Another important part of gathering information is to clearly identify the expected outcomes of the learning process. In other words, what exactly are the objectives of the learning process? Which performance is expected of the learner at the end of the educational process? In an institutionalised context, such as a school, there are curricula that provide this information, which is useful for the teacher to form an informed view. Like the captain of a ship, the teacher is responsible for staying on course, even if the sea is rough, the winds are strong, or the currents are against them and cause the ship to stray from its ideal course for a while.

For informal learning, this diagnostic stage is also important, as is constitutes the act of clearly identifying the objectives. For example, what does “teaching a child to ride a bike” actually mean? Teaching them not to falling over on a flat, clear path? Knowing how to start, following a path while avoiding simple obstacles, or riding on a road in their neighbourhood? The educational support required in terms of duration, level of difficulty and skills needed to ride a bike safely will not be the same for each of these objectives.

6.   (2) Defining the teaching problem. After “identifying and selecting information,” “defining the teaching problem” is the second phase: based on the information gathered in their investigation, the teacher must define the teaching problem. Don’t be intimidated by the term “problem”: in concrete terms, the challenge is to define the teaching issue to be addressed in a given situation.

7.    It is important to have a global vision. To obtain this, we need to clearly identify the gap between the learner’s real level of knowledge or skills at the outset, and the learning objectives to be achieved, and to ask what is the path to follow?

8.  Another point is to contextualise the problem: once the teaching approach has been identified, what are the resources and constraints that must be taken into account to construct a solution, that is, a path towards learning? A pragmatic approach is useful to coordinate all the information available. In any real teaching situation, this means drawing on experience and common sense, without losing sight of the various teaching methods available.

There are several pitfalls to avoid during this diagnostic phase:

Blindly following a theoretical path that seems clear-cut and offers a “ready-made” solution.
Mechanically relying on routines.
Applying a “one-size-fits-all” solution or following a teaching injunction that is supposed to provide an answer to all situations.

9.    Two points to bear in mind:

Point 1:  During the two aspects of the diagnosis (identifying and defining the teaching problem to be addressed), the three teaching registers are involved: the didactic register is used for the identification/assessment, the relational register is used during exchanges with the learner (the first meeting, when everyone introduces themselves to each other, is essential, and the teacher takes advantage of this to establish elements of a climate conducive to the most favourable learning conditions), and the organisational register is also relevant, particularly in the analysis of the context and other elements of the teaching situation.

Point 2: It should be noted that while it is useful to make an initial diagnosis that is more or less formalised depending on the case, this diagnosis may continue to be refined and evolve as learning progresses. The strategic benchmarks provided by the diagnosis will have a guiding function throughout the process and will prevent the teacher from feeling “lost” in their task.

For a beginner, establishing a diagnosis is an important task. With time, and by keeping an eye on the realities of the context, the teacher can draw on their experience, which becomes real expertise… and this ultimately benefits the learner.

Slide  7

Step 1: Diagnosis (2 of 2)

1. We make three observations

Note 1: In the case of a large group (e.g. a class), the assessment allows you to draw up individual profiles as well as a group profile. Significant heterogeneity among learners at the outset will require considerable effort on the part of the teacher. While it is logical to expect differences at the outset (this is how humans are: we are all different in terms of experience, aptitude, abilities, motivation, socio-cultural background, etc.), very marked differences pose a challenge for the teacher. The teacher can differentiate between starting points if the context allows it and differentiate between learning paths to adjust to each individual’s pace, difficulties and performance during the subsequent stages.

2.  Note 2: Of course, there are programmes that provide a framework and textbooks that serve as tools and aids. We may also have certainties that we have developed over time. But in teaching, reality prevails, and you must begin with the learner’s starting point to help them progress. Build on the learner’s actual foundations, not on a theoretical level that is far removed from the real world. Without this, a lot of time, effort and motivation will be wasted.

3.  Note 3: The diagnostic stage is an opportunity to identify the learner’s representations of the learning object (see module 1 “At the heart of pedagogy: three registers of mediation”). Beyond what they already know and what can be assessed, there is what the learners believe, how they see reality, and all of this is largely invisible. Hence the importance of identifying this during a dialogue. Some misconceptions can be obstacles to future learning, and identifying those that pose problems will enable the teacher to deconstruct them before introducing new knowledge later in the teaching process.

Slide 8

Step 2: Building a solution (1/2)

1.    The results of the initial diagnosis give the teacher a fairly accurate definition of the teaching problem to be addressed.

The second step is to use this as a basis for developing a suitable solution. The resulting plan is, in a sense, the teacher’s response to the problem. Once again, pragmatism, i.e. taking reality into account, is essential. But being pragmatic does not mean giving up or resigning oneself to a kind of inevitability. To develop a solution, you can draw on common sense and experience, the opinions and advice of other experienced people, scientific benchmarks, and existing tools (especially when you are just starting out and may be overwhelmed by the complexity of teaching): certain resources, such as textbooks, provide solid reference points that offer reassurance and save time that may be lacking. It is also useful to give free rein to your creativity, spontaneity and emotions: teaching remains a powerful adventure in terms of human interaction. Teaching problems often seem to repeat themselves in the same way, but they usually also have unique aspects, which experience helps to identify over time.

Developing an appropriate teaching solution before taking charge of a learner involves two interrelated activities: (1) designing a well-thought-out teaching progression; (2) organising and preparing a teaching scenario.

 2.  (1) Designing a well-thought-out teaching progression (see module 1 “At the heart of pedagogy: three registers of mediation”). Conducting a teaching design activity means building a structured teaching progression that is tailored to the logic of the knowledge or skills to be learned.  While common sense must be applied, teachers need to reflect on their experience and the resources available to them. This leads, in the context of didactic transposition, to the activities to be offered to learners as they progress, with a view to didactic devolution. Depending on the context (school, vocational training, business, informal setting), the teaching requirements differ, but they remain strategic. Teaching aids and resources are widely available, and teaching methods for school subjects are used in textbooks. In vocational training (crafts, industry, service-sector professions, etc.), there are courses based on an analysis of the activity concerned, and which identify the reasoning and skills required. In any case, even in more informal situations, it is impossible to work without a kind of teaching logic focused on what needs to be learned in a given context. Otherwise, we leave it to our intuition to guide our actions, limiting ourselves to doing what is comfortable and rewarding, or we grope around without any visibility. This leads the teacher, sometimes without realising it, to sacrifice the most vulnerable learners, those who need particularly strong didactic support in order to progress.

This can happen even if the teacher is a friendly and enthusiastic person!

3.  (2) Organise and prepare a teaching plan. The teacher must organise and prepare a realistic teaching plan. A clear and structured document must be produced, taking into account the resources and constraints of the context as well as information about the learner, such as their level and interests. This document, which may be more or less formal depending on the context, will guide the teaching process. It specifies the activities of the teacher and the learner and indicates the resources to be used and how they will be coordinated. It specifies the steps and their duration.

Slide 9

Step 2.  Developing a solution (2/2). Focus on the teaching scenario

1. In concrete terms, this scenario is an action plan that describes, phase by phase, the learning activities offered to the learner, following the didactic logic of “reconstruction.” This action plan describes, in the manner of a scenario, the successive stages, their structure and their coordination.

2.    The scenario, organised for example as a table, identifies the resources required: time (with the different episodes that follow one another within each stage), use of space, tools, organisation, instructions.

3. The scenario details what the teacher does (observes, demonstrates, instructs, prompts, evaluates, explains). Which material resources do they use? Where does the teaching take place? How long does it last? How does the teacher ensure that the learner is following? They can ask them to repeat something, give them a specific task to do which they will assess, or observe them practising a skill.

4. The scenario also describes what the learner does, based on the instructions given. It details which tools they use, for how long, and what they need to achieve. For example: taking notes, analysing or summarising a document, acting on a work situation, practising on a machine, training, solving a problem.

5. We make four observations, which are all important:

Note 1: The action plan or scenario depends greatly on the objectives and context: a nursery-school teacher, a driving instructor, a baker training an apprentice, a hospital nurse with a second-year intern, etc. will all have a different action plan, depending on the specific situation. However, the structure of the action plan will be the same: it will be a response tailored to the initial diagnosis and the learning problem in question at a specific point in time.

Note 2: It is also important to remember that the action plan outlines the progression of learning at different levels. In schools and vocational training programmes, the institution has programmes, objectives and manuals for students and teachers or trainers, making this a highly structured system. Sometimes, academic documents go as far as describing in great detail the content to be offered and how it should be assessed. This is particularly the case when studying for a national diploma that certifies the skills expected by employers and grants the authorisation to practise a profession, for example in France, the State Diploma in Nursing. It is not hard to see why this is clearly regulated.

Note 3: In the case of this website on pedagogy, we focus more on the “micro” dimension of the concrete teaching situation: that of the teacher who is face to face with one or more learners. The teacher’s objective is for the learners to achieve specific learning outcomes that will enable them to develop, demonstrate knowledge or act more independently.

Note 4: Finally, it should be noted that step 2 takes place before the actual learning phase, i.e. without the learners being present. This preparation time results in an action plan, a scenario or a “roadmap,” which may be more or less formalised, and which the teacher has at their disposal when the learner enters the actual learning phase. This roadmap is not a complicated document; it is a clear and simple outline of the anticipated sequence of events during the learning session. It is a realistic and structured starting point. However, it is not a closed scenario or a rigid protocol to be applied indiscriminately. Because there is interaction with the learner, the teaching process remains open to unforeseen events, which is why adjustments and modifications are necessary.

Slide 10

Step 3: Implementing and adjusting (1/3)

1. Step 3 is an “operational” step: the teacher and the learner are interacting directly.

2. There are three phases that follow on logically from one another:

(1) Implementing the initial teaching scenario

(2) Monitoring learning and identifying difficulties

(3) Regulating, i.e. adjusting or adapting the teaching response while staying on course to overcome learning hazards and difficulties.

Note on the concept of regulation. If we look more closely, we can distinguish between two levels of regulation: adjustments and adaptations.

Adjustments are more tactical and can be made with only minor changes in real time, on the margins of the teaching plan.
Adaptations, on the other hand, are more strategic and require significant modification of the initial action plan. They can be made over a future learning period.
3.   Phase 1. The easiest way to start is to stick to the scenario developed at the end of step 2. Normally, that is a realistic plan that takes into account the learner’s initial level, the context and the resources available, and allows for progress to be made. However, teaching is not just about following a teaching scenario. While this may be necessary to provide a common thread and clear reference points in terms of teaching and organisation, “real life” often takes over and disrupts the initial scenario: a question arises, or an explanation causes problems for the learner, who loses track of what they are learning, etc.

Slide 11

Step 3: Implementing and adjusting (2/3)

1. Phase 2. Monitoring learning and identifying difficulties. This is done step by step. There is no point for the teacher to move too quickly without checking that the learner is still “with them,” because they may end up going it alone. The teacher’s activity only makes sense if, in a way, they are working as a team with the learner. The two, with different statuses, are in a sense in the same boat. As we mentioned in the Fundamentals module 1, teaching is a joint activity.

At each stage of the teaching process, it is the teacher’s responsibility to regularly check that the learner is “with them,” that they have not lost focus and that, as we often say, they are “following.” The teacher monitors the learner’s progress as they go along. This is a form of “real-time” assessment, known as formative assessment. There are many ways of monitoring progress. It depends on whether the situation is formal or informal, whether the learner is alone or in a group, whether there is a time constraint, etc. By asking the learner to rephrase what they have understood, by simply asking questions about the content of their knowledge, by observing what the learner is doing (for example, a sterile procedure during nursing care), or by other means such as a quiz or a targeted exercise, the teacher can check whether the learner is still with them at each stage of the lesson. If there are any difficulties, it is up to the teacher to adjust and adapt.

2. Phase 3. Adjusting to overcome challenges and learning difficulties while staying on course.

In general, for living beings, being able to adapt to their environment and to unexpected events is often a condition for survival: dinosaurs, which were unable to adapt to the climatic consequences of an asteroid strike, became extinct, unlike mammals—including humans—which are warm-blooded animals. Our purpose here is to point out that the teacher, having monitored the learner’s progress, is required to adapt in the event of difficulties and to adjust their initial action plan. This involves regulating learning by modifying the initial scenario to a greater or lesser extent. Adaptation here signifies a more significant change than a mere adjustment. This is also referred to as regulation or feedback. Sometimes, it is enough to take a moment to clarify something, rephrase an explanation, give an example or show what needs to be done.

The idea of staying on course is essential, and here, the “course” corresponds to the learning objectives. There is no question of “lowering” these learning objectives. If a ship is caught in bad weather, the captain and crew adapt, modifying the planned course at least temporarily.  But in the end, despite the hazards, the aim is to reach the right port, which for us means achieving the learning objectives that have been set. All this clearly illustrates the dilemma faced by teachers when dealing with learning difficulties in a constrained context, especially when time is limited. Modular learning, both at school and in training, can be a solution for making certain forms of organisation more flexible (see Thematic module: “Teaching trends 3”).

Slide 12

Step 3: Implementing and adjusting (3/3)

1.    Remember that teaching is an open-ended issue, caught between practice and theory: we move forward using common sense, in a logical and structured way, but this process is always marked by a certain amount of uncertainty. This is because we don’t just implement a teaching formula that is guaranteed to work. Uncertainties, i.e. more or less unpredictable events, arise and force us to adapt.

Among the most common contingencies are those related to organisation: the fact that the tools, equipment or resources initially planned are not available. It is often a question of time (especially, but not only, for inexperienced teachers).

Contingencies or difficulties may arise on the learner’s side. These difficulties become visible when the learner’s performances falls short of expectations, after an assessment or following exchanges between the teacher and the learner.

For example, if the learner says, “I don’t understand that,” this calls for a response from the teacher… (note that such intervention on the part of the learner is welcome: it is preferable to silence, which does not allow learning difficulties to be identified and can ultimately lead to the learning losing motivation or even dropping out).
In addition, the teacher can check, by questioning the learner, whether they have understood a point that is important for learning. If this is not the case, this logically leads to a response from the teacher.
These two examples illustrate very common situations, as it is very rare for a learner to understand everything the first time around.

2.  The two activities of the teacher which we have highlighted, namely checking the learner’s understanding step by step, and regulating progress while staying on track, are essential. Together with clearly explaining what needs to be learned, they constitute the DNA of teaching. Let’s focus on the question of adjustments that can be made in the heat of the moment or after the event.

Pedagogical adjustments, which, as we have said, are intermediate-level adjustments, can be made “ad hoc,” directly during the learning time: correcting a misunderstanding or a misinterpretation on the part of the learner, providing clarification, drawing attention to an element that needs to be considered. The pedagogical intention behind these real-time adjustments is to provide a solution that is the right response to the difficulty identified. Only minor changes are made to the initial scenario, or these ad hoc adjustments can even be incorporated into the initial scenario, if the latter allows for a degree of flexibility, which is desirable.
“After-the-fact” adaptations, on the other hand, are more significant adjustments: they involve a specific learning period during which the teaching scenario is adapted to take include the difficulties encountered, and new activities are proposed to overcome them.

3. Adjustments and adaptations should be made according to the situation and context, following the three registers of teaching, to provide the most comprehensive and robust “response” possible:

4. Didactic register: this involves making adjustments to the knowledge to be transmitted by the teacher and acquired by the learner. It is the precise analysis of the error identified during formative assessment, i.e. checking what has been learned at a stage of the learning process, that will enable a targeted response to be provided, such as establishing a connection, coordinating elements, taking into account or checking information, focusing attention on a specific point, refining a gesture, or observing a rule. The teacher can simplify an element, break it down into micro-steps, slow down the pace, focus on a particular element, etc. This is a kind of “microscopic” teaching approach. The teacher then checks the relevance of the response and, if the error persists, patiently finds a suitable teaching method, whether that be an exercise, a simulated or real-life situation, etc. In most cases, a discussion between the teacher and learner about the error and the given response helps to identify the right solution more easily.

This can be referred to as co-explanation.

The learner tries to explain the difficulty they are encountering, either on their own initiative or at the request of the teacher. This is far from easy, as learners are not always aware of their mistakes, or they may seem unclear to them.

The teacher tries to clarify by simplifying, giving examples and didactic explanations to provide an answer. It is important that this answer lies within the learner’s zone of development (as we have learned from Bruner’s work: see the Thematic module: “Teaching trends 3”).

5. Relationship register: in the event of an error or difficulty, the learner may feel vulnerable, and their self-confidence may be undermined. While it is logical and common to encounter occasional difficulties in the learning process, this becomes more problematic when difficulties accumulate or persist. There is often a risk of losing face, and teachers should avoid judging learners negatively (“but it’s easy” and “try harder” are phrases that have discouraged many learners in difficulty). The teacher’s role in providing support is essential. Let’s be clear, this does not mean denying the difficulty or saying: “Don’t worry, everything is fine.” It means that, while adjusting their teaching approach, teachers should foster the commitment of learners, who need their full attention. Targeted and personalised encouragement that recognises even modest efforts and successes, without being overly enthusiastic, is welcome. Such encouragement is all the more effective when the long-term learning environment is conducive to dialogue and based on a relationship of trust.

6. Organisational framework: the teaching organisation is guided by the time available to the learner to learn, as well as the various material resources. Regulation can impact organisation, as it is time-consuming. Ideally, it is prudent to allow time in the initial teaching plan for adjustments to be made and, where necessary, for learners to practise and consolidate their learning, sometimes independently. Depending on the situation, the teaching scenario that guides the learning process may need to be revised to a greater or lesser extent. Depending on the context (school curriculum to be completed, exam preparation), the teacher will have to make trade-offs. This is particularly true when the teacher has a very diverse class. Solutions exist, but they can be costly to implement in terms of organisation (rooms, timetables, staff, etc.). Differentiated teaching, on which the French teacher Philippe Meirieu has conducted research, offers solutions to organise this. Among the various approaches, one involves developing activities specific to pupils divided into groups of similar ability so that each pupil is given activities tailored to the area they are about to develop. In other contexts, such as driving lessons to obtain a driving licence, the instructor is less constrained by time, and they can extend the learning time before the test by adding a few hours of driving to the learner’s lessons. This additional time will be focused on the difficulties that are identified. This choice also applies to school hours dedicated to “tutoring,” which are added to deal with difficulties encountered by certain students. However, this solution also has its own limitations, as it can discourage learners if used too extensively.

In any case, regulations sometimes require a review of the initial scenario to make the best use of existing resources and to ensure that learners make real progress.

Slide 13

Step 4.  Evaluating results and validating the approach (1/2)

1.  This final step completes the four-step teaching process (assessment, design, implementation with adjustments, and evaluation).

Depending on the time scale, learning cycles can be considered to follow one another…

A school year, with its curriculum and organisation, follows the previous year and opens the next: it is a fairly long cycle that can be broken down, subject by subject, into several micro-cycles, each linked to an intermediate learning stage. This is because each cycle, in terms of content, has its own functional coherence, enabling learners to acquire a set of identifiable and assessable skills that have a certain unity. For example, knowing how to do long division in primary school, or knowing how to make croissants in a bakery training course. This set of skills builds on previous skills and serves as a foundation for future learning.

On a shorter timescale, the four-stage cycles follow one another: for example, learning a basic technical skill in one or two sessions will be followed by integrating this skill into more complex techniques. Similarly, if you teach a 5-year-old child to ride a bike, learning to balance on a flat, straight stretch of road is only the start… until they can ride in all kinds of different situations.

2.    In reality, the concept of assessment is central to the teaching approach and has already been addressed in the previous three stages.

The initial diagnosis is a kind of starting point to assess the learner’s level at the outset.
From the moment the teaching scenario is designed, it is important to anticipate the step-by-step assessment of the learner’s progress.
Furthermore, during stage 3 (implementing and adjusting), which is at the heart of the teaching approach, formative assessment at each stage of learning allows you to identify the progress to be made, or to identify specific difficulties, which can then be overcome through adjustments or adaptations of the teaching approach
3.    The final assessment completes the learning process and involves evaluating the results. The learner will perform a specific task, which is assessed by the teacher from a qualitative or quantitative perspective. The learner will be able to see any progress they have made. This is the most familiar aspect of learning assessment.

4.   Another less well-known aspect of assessment is the teacher’s evaluation of their own work at each stage, as part of a process of reflective “feedback.”

5.    Assessment is a complex concept. Let us simply point out two complementary aspects of assessment here: measurement and evaluation.

Measurement is objective, often quantitative, and posits criteria for success. This refers to the idea of a possible comparison, either with a standard, a scale or a previous measurement (the idea of possible progress).
Appreciation is more subjective, more qualitative, and refers to the idea of a relative value that is attributed to performance or progress in each context.
Everyone has experienced these two complementary aspects through school reports: grades are a very formal form of measurement, while assessments correspond to teachers’ comments. Of course, in an informal context, the concept of assessment, while still essential in informing learners about their progress, can take on a very flexible dimension—encouragement and praise are examples of this.

Slide 14

Step 4. Evaluating results and validating the process (2/2)

This slide returns to the assessment of the learner and the self-assessment of the teacher to provide additional information.

1.   Learner assessment is the one that comes to mind most easily: following the learning experience, has the learner made any progress? Are they more independent in carrying out an activity that requires the knowledge or skills that were the subject of the learning experience? Have they reached a level recognised by a formal qualification?

The final assessment of the learner focuses on their performance, sometimes in a highly formalised context such as an exam to obtain a qualification, sometimes in a less formal context such as learning in an informal environment. National and international assessments allow us to measure the results obtained at the macro level of the education system and to compare them, with a view to allowing adjustments to programmes, methods or the organisation of schools.

2.    From a technical point of view, assessment should allow the teacher to verify the acquisition of skills (knowledge, abilities and attitudes) that were set as objectives at the start of the learning process. This is done in a relatively institutionalised manner depending on the context. A wide range of tools and mechanisms exist, ranging from those strictly defined in training assessment frameworks to less structured situations in an “ordinary” environment (e.g. at home, a parent teaches a child to brush their teeth, or a teenager to use an iron or a drill).

3.   If successful, academic assessment leads to the formal recognition of a competence, which is generally associated with symbolic recognition. In the Middle Ages, in the guild system, the apprentice’s “masterpiece” at the end of a highly structured training course entitled him to the title of journeyman. This title conferred a level of skill and made it easier to find skilled work. At the same time, it was a symbolic recognition by peers and in the eyes of society, with an identity-building effect of enhanced self-esteem, following all the efforts made during the complex journey of learning.

Today, passing your driving test is more commonplace: it gives you formal authorisation to drive a car on the road (and may make it easier to find a job). In addition, especially if passed on the first attempt, it gives the person who obtains it a sense of pride and the esteem of their loved ones.

4.  Validation (or not) of the teaching approach

In addition to the self-assessment carried out during the process, this is a time for the teacher to take stock of their teaching activity. It is a reflective and critical moment to validate what is relevant and what needs to be improved at each stage of the process: diagnosis, scenario, implementation and adjustment, evaluation of results. This reflective feedback is akin to an experiential approach.

This review of the process by the teacher is central to consolidating their teaching expertise and enabling them to improve. It is also important in terms of identity, with the feeling of “becoming a teacher, and succeeding as a teacher.” This evaluation builds confidence and self-esteem and helps to overcome challenges.

5. Note: it should be noted that in higher education and vocational training, quality assessment is now increasingly widespread. This is referred to as “macro” quality management.  This largely quantitative accountability aims to assess the suitability of training for employment and to rank the relevance and excellence of training courses (in terms of their attractiveness). Learners are also asked to evaluate their training experience.

Slide 15

Four-point conclusion

To conclude this module and, at the same time, the three Fundamentals modules which form a coherent whole within this training course in pedagogy, it is best to highlight four essential points.

1. Point 1. Pedagogy, between practice and theory, gives pride of place to interactions between teachers and learners. While common sense and empiricism have an effective place in the teacher’s work, it does not always enable them to cope with the complexity of pedagogy, which evolves during the learning process, or to deal with the obstacles encountered by the learner. It is not simply a matter of presenting content, but of “making people learn.” The benchmarks provided by this training course are therefore useful.

2. Point 2. Our approach as educators and researchers is humanistic and pragmatic. To create this website, we drew on a summary analysis of teaching approaches in a wide variety of situations: primary school, secondary school and higher education, vocational training and work-based learning, adult education, community organisations and informal settings.  This has enabled us to identify a generic structure common to these educational situations: pedagogy, which consists of “making people learn,” is structured around three complementary registers of mediation that combine in action: the didactic register, the relational register and the organisational register. This is the subject of Fundamentals module 1 of our training programme.

3.  Point 3. To account for the complexity of teaching, it must be considered that, like many other human activities, it comprises a structural dimension linked to a dynamic dimension. The structural dimension corresponds to the second Fundamentals module of our training, entitled “The teaching situation.” The dynamic dimension corresponds to the third Fundamentals module, entitled “The teaching approach.” This is the present module.

4. Point 4. Far from seeking to argue or lecture, this training course does not aim for perfection. It aims to draw attention to the essential points. We may sometimes repeat ourselves in order to highlight the key points to remember and because each person will approach the different modules according to their own questions. This training course in teaching is aimed at everyone, whether you are a regular or occasional professional involved in teaching, or simply “the (wo)man in the street.” Our ambition is to make the essentials of teaching accessible to all.  Teaching is a vast field. One possible way to go beyond the three Fundamentals modules is to explore the thematic modules at your own pace and according to your interests. There are about fifteen modules in total.

Enjoy the rest of the course!